Theological solutions often include a combination of ideas while emphasizing particular concepts. This is not easy to do because it involves holding multiple ideas in mind simultaneously while recognizing their interrelatedness and placing them in an appropriate order. If there is one guy who excelled at this task, it was the apostle Paul. So what did Paul say about this topic? What were the main elements in his thinking?
Universal Judgment
In his New Testament letters, Paul doesn’t mention eternal conscious torment or Gehenna or Hades. He does, however, say that God will judge each of us for what we have done.
For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each of us may receive what is due us for the things done while in the body, whether good or bad. (2 Cor 5:10)
You, then, why do you judge your brother or sister? Or why do you treat them with contempt? For we will all stand before God’s judgment seat. (Rom 14:10)
Perhaps Paul’s most detailed explanation of ultimate judgment is found in 1 Corinthians:
For no one can lay any foundation other than the one already laid, which is Jesus Christ. If anyone builds on this foundation using gold, silver, costly stones, wood, hay or straw, their work will be shown for what it is, because the Day will bring it to light. It will be revealed with fire, and the fire will test the quality of each person’s work. If what has been built survives, the builder will receive a reward. If it is burned up, the builder will suffer loss but yet will be saved—even though only as one escaping through the flames. (3:11–15)
God’s instrument of judgment will be fire and this fire will serve as a light, revealing the quality of “each person’s work.” The fire, however, will do more than illuminate; it will also test and possibly destroy. Yet, even if the work is “burned up” the builder will be saved “as one escaping through the flames.” What is this fire? Several theologians have asserted that it is none other than God himself, who is called “a consuming fire” (Heb 12:29). And since “God is love,” this is the fire of transcendent love.
Granted, Paul’s words here are addressed to believers in Corinth so we don’t have explicit comments directed to outsiders. Since all will appear before the same judgment seat, however, it’s reasonable to infer that this is essentially how the process will work for everyone.
A Double Outcome
Paul also expresses a dual outcome in several places:
For the message of the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God. (1 Cor 1:18)
Whoever sows to please their flesh, from the flesh will reap destruction; whoever sows to please the Spirit, from the Spirit will reap eternal life. (Gal 6:8)
without being frightened in any way by those who oppose you. This is a sign to them that they will be destroyed, but that you will be saved—and that by God. (Phil 1:28)
Their destiny is destruction, their god is their stomach, and their glory is in their shame. Their mind is set on earthly things. But our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ, who, by the power that enables him to bring everything under his control, will transform our lowly bodies so that they will be like his glorious body. (Phil 3:19–21)
Not Inheriting the Kingdom
In Galatians Paul gives a severe warning, which he says he has given before. Since he conveys a similar caution in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians this must have been an important part of his teaching.
The acts of the flesh are obvious: sexual immorality, impurity and debauchery; idolatry and witchcraft; hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions and envy; drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God. (Gal 5:19–21)
Or do you not know that wrongdoers will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor men who have sex with men nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God. (1 Cor 6:9–10)
For of this you can be sure: No immoral, impure or greedy person—such a person is an idolater—has any inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God. (Eph 5:5)
These warnings imply a double outcome: some will not inherit God’s kingdom, others will. Further, these warnings don’t include the words “destruction” or “perish,” which as we have seen, Christian universalists interpret as part of the refining process. Hence these threats sound final.
Christian universalists may respond by saying, “Paul was right, no one who does these things will enter God’s kingdom. In the coming ages God will purify all so that they don’t do these things.” But that seems to suggest that people will do these things after they die. Paul, however, is thinking of what people are doing during their earthly life, not things they are doing in the afterlife. How can we do any of these things (e.g., getting drunk, stealing, etc.) after we die? Moreover, Paul’s warnings are focused on actions not merely states of mind. Hence those who do these things in this life will not inherit the kingdom of God.
I don’t have a compelling universal explanation to these statements, other than noting that they are warnings and they don’t say if the ban on entering the kingdom is permanent.
Sorrow and Tears
Contemplating the loss of the wicked was not a mere intellectual exercise for Paul. He experienced anguish, sorrow, and even shed tears on behalf of others.
I speak the truth in Christ—I am not lying, my conscience confirms it through the Holy Spirit— I have great sorrow and unceasing anguish in my heart. For I could wish that I myself were cursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my people, those of my own race, the people of Israel. (Rom 9:1–4)
Brothers and sisters, my heart’s desire and prayer to God for the Israelites is that they may be saved. (Rom 10:1)
For, as I have often told you before and now tell you again even with tears, many live as enemies of the cross of Christ. Their destiny is destruction, their god is their stomach, and their glory is in their shame. Their mind is set on earthly things. (Phil 3:18–19)
Like Paul praying for the salvation of his fellow Jews, we should pray for others, and our prayers should extend to all, because God wants all to be saved.
I urge, then, first of all, that petitions, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made for all people—for kings and all those in authority, that we may live peaceful and quiet lives in all godliness and holiness. This is good, and pleases God our Savior, who wants all people to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth. For there is one God and one mediator between God and mankind, the man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for all people. This has now been witnessed to at the proper time. (1 Tim 2:1–6)
Some argue that this means God wants all “types” of people to be saved, but that is an unacceptable qualification. The text clearly says that God wants “all people” to be saved.
Exclusion and Inclusion
Intriguingly, in the same letters where Paul makes exclusive comments, his thought also encompasses all people.
Their destiny is destruction (Phil 3:19)
Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father. (Phil 2:9–11)
Or do you not know that wrongdoers will not inherit the kingdom of God? (1 Cor 6:9)
For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive . . . When he has done this, then the Son himself will be made subject to him who put everything under him, so that God may be all in all. (1 Cor 15:22–28)
I myself were cursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my people, those of my own race, the people of Israel. . . . Brothers and sisters, my heart’s desire and prayer to God for the Israelites is that they may be saved. (Rom 9:1–4; 10:1)
I do not want you to be ignorant of this mystery, brothers and sisters, so that you may not be conceited: Israel has experienced a hardening in part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in, and in this way all Israel will be saved . . . For God has bound everyone over to disobedience so that he may have mercy on them all. (Rom 11:25–32)
Some will be destroyed yet every knee will bow to Christ; some will not inherit God’s kingdom yet “in Christ all will be made alive”; Israel has been hardened yet “all Israel will be saved” and God will have “mercy on them all.” Allow me to list a few more of Paul’s universal statements:
Consequently, just as one trespass resulted in condemnation for all people, so also one righteous act resulted in justification and life for all people. (Rom 5:18)
With all wisdom and understanding, he made known to us the mystery of his will according to his good pleasure, which he purposed in Christ, to be put into effect when the times reach their fulfillment—to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ. (Eph 1:8–10)
Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of
For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Col 1:19–20)
That is why we labor and strive, because we have put our hope in the living God, who is the Savior of all people, and especially of those who believe. (1 Tim 4:10)
In the last statement, don’t confuse “especially” with “exclusively.” God is the Savior of everyone.
Paul’s Thought
Somehow Paul was able to hold together all these ideas:
- divine judgment on every individual based on our deeds,
- the prospect that some will inherit God’s kingdom and others will not, including a severe warning that how we live matters,
- deep sorrow over those whose “destiny is destruction,”
- prayer for the salvation of Israel and prayer for all people because God wants all to be saved and Christ gave himself as a ransom for all people,
- Christ’s righteous act brought justification and life to all people,
- the vision of all Israel being saved, all things being reconciled to God, all confessing Christ’s supremacy, and God being “all in all.”
If you think those are a lot of balls to juggle, that is only a fraction of what Paul was doing mentally. How did these concepts not result in cognitive dissonance? Paul never explains this matter in his letters so we are left to speculate.
“All” is not All
Many argue that the “all” Paul is thinking of is not literally every single person who has ever lived. “All” should be qualified in a couple of ways: (1) all who surrender to Christ and (2) all who are still in existence after divine judgment. These qualifications, then, eliminate the conflict. All who are still around are praising Christ and reconciled to God.
This is a reasonable argument, but it only works from an annihilationist perspective. ECT has the problem of an eternal realm of rebels which clashes with a universal confession and God being “all in all.”
We should note, though, that Paul’s statements don’t include these qualifications. If he wanted his “all” to mean all, how else could he have said it? The verses that give a glimpse of universal unity are emphatically universal. Notice the additional phrases in italics:
- “to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth” (Eph 1:10)
- “to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven” (Col 1:20)
- and “every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth” (Phil 2:10)
Why didn’t Paul end his statements with “all things” or “every knee should bow”? It seems like he was going out of his way to make his all-inclusive point. Although we may not want to, perhaps we should swallow the “all” pill and live with the consequences.
Implicit vs. Explicit Universalism
Douglas Campbell explains things this way: “Paul himself was not an explicit universalist. However, I believe we are entitled to suggest that he is one implicitly.”[i] How so?
Campbell is referencing Romans 5, where Christ’s righteous act triumphs over Adam’s transgression. If we allow this divine work to dominate Adam’s story, as we should, a universal outcome is implied. Moreover, without this inference in place, we create a major theological catastrophe with Adam’s sin overpowering Christ’s sacrifice.
Campbell continues by claiming that Paul was an explicit universalist in relation to Israel. This claim is supported with an appeal to Romans 9–11, and especially the assertion “all Israel will be saved” (11:26). Who is “all Israel”? Here are four options:
- The church of Jews and Gentiles
- The elect of Israel
- Israel as a whole but not every single individual member
- Every single Israelite
Israel’s rejection of the gospel is the reason for Paul’s grief in this section (9:1–5). Moreover, in the immediate context Paul makes a distinction between Israel and the Gentiles:
Israel has experienced a hardening in part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in, and in this way all Israel will be saved. (11:25b–26a)
Hence, “Israel” refers to ethnic Israel so this eliminates option one. Paul proceeds by acknowledging a remnant or elect group within Israel, which has always been the case (9:6–13). Hence, if “all Israel” refers to this remnant, what progress did Paul make by the end of his three-chapter argument? And why would this redundancy cause him to break out into this crescendo of praise?
For God has bound everyone over to disobedience so that he may have mercy on them all.
Oh, the depth of the riches of the wisdom and knowledge of God!
How unsearchable his judgments,
and his paths beyond tracing out!
“Who has known the mind of the Lord?
Or who has been his counselor?”
“Who has ever given to God,
that God should repay them?”
For from him and through him and for him are all things.
To him be the glory forever! Amen. (11:32–36)?
This eliminates option two.
Regarding the last two possibilities, Gregory MacDonald (a.k.a. Robin Parry) says, “It is not possible to answer this question with certainty, as Paul does not expand on this point.”[ii] Perhaps Paul meant most Jews instead of every individual Jew. Either way, Paul envisions a great influx of Jews into Christ’s kingdom after “the full number of the Gentiles has come in” (11:25).
Richard Bell has argued for the final option—every single Jew. This is due in part to Paul’s statement that “God’s gifts and his call are irrevocable” (11:29) so, Bell reasons, it would be strange if some Israelites are excluded from salvation.[iii]
MacDonald brings up an important question: Does “all Israel” mean every Jew alive at the end or every Jew who has ever lived? He responds,
even if Paul were merely thinking synchronically, there are still good theological grounds for us to extend this into a diachronic interpretation. The reasoning is simple: Paul is showing how God is indeed faithful to his covenant with national Israel by saving them all. However, if this promise only applies to the final generation, then it remains the case that the vast majority of Jews who have lived are not saved, and the very problem Paul was seeking to solve remains with us.[iv]
It seems, then, that Paul explicitly affirmed universal salvation for Israel (or at least he used language along these lines), but what about everyone else?
First, we should note that Paul doesn’t mention the universal salvation of Gentiles in Romans 9–11. However, he is focused on the salvation of Israel so we should be careful not to make too much of this silence. Second, Bell says that one way to solve the problem is by appealing to the universalist texts in Paul: Rom 5:18–19; 2 Cor 5:19; Phil 2:10–11.[v] Third, we can apply biblical principles. Bell mentions C. H. Dodd’s (1884–1973) argument:
Dodd argued that Paul’s premises “All Israel will be saved” and “there is no distinction between Jew and Gentile” must imply a universal salvation.[vi]
Dodd uses a biblical principle—no favoritism—to show that the same scope of salvation must pertain to Gentiles. Likewise, since God will save “all Israel,” Campbell concludes, “there seem to be no good reasons for withholding exactly this narrative from humanity in general.”[vii] If this is correct, we have grounds for inferring universal salvation in Paul. The solution, then, is to distinguish between explicit and implicit universalism.
What can we say in response to this proposal? We must admit that neither Paul nor any other New Testament author clearly says, “every single person who has ever lived will be saved and will inherit God’s kingdom.” In that sense, the Bible does not express explicit universalism. At the same time, the universal affirmations are not in hiding. Near the beginning of Colossians, Paul waxes eloquently on God’s universal reconciliation in Christ:
For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (1:19–20)
Campbell’s distinction between explicit and implicit universalism makes sense for Romans 5 and 11, but other passages result in more of a clash between an explicit double outcome and an explicit single outcome. For instance, some will not inherit God’s kingdom yet everyone will offer praise to Christ and all things will be reconciled to God. Was Paul thinking that praise would be offered by people who are outside God’s kingdom?
Geographical vs. Spiritual Universalism
Perhaps another distinction may be helpful: a universalism of belief or submission but not of location. Note the geographical phrases in Philippians 2:
Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father. (vv. 9–11)
Although everyone is surrendering to Christ and acknowledging his lordship, they are not all in the same place: “in heaven and on earth and under the earth.” Don’t ask me to elaborate. I have no idea how geography works in the afterlife.
Initial Exclusivism vs. Ultimate Inclusivism
Here’s a third suggestion. Paul was initially convinced that some would be left out, but after prayer and deep reflection he came to understand the profound mystery that all would be saved. We can see this progression—sorrow to prayer to revelation—in Romans 9–11.
I speak the truth in Christ—I am not lying, my conscience confirms it through the Holy Spirit— I have great sorrow and unceasing anguish in my heart. For I could wish that I myself were cursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my people, those of my own race, the people of Israel. (Rom 9:1–4)
Brothers and sisters, my heart’s desire and prayer to God for the Israelites is that they may be saved. (Rom 10:1)
I do not want you to be ignorant of this mystery, brothers and sisters, so that you may not be conceited: Israel has experienced a hardening in part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in, and in this way all Israel will be saved. . . (Rom 11:25–26a)
Prayer may have been the key to Paul’s understanding of this mystery. Is prayer the key for us as well? In The City of God, Augustine mentions some who affirmed this idea:
There are others, again, with whose opinions I have become acquainted in conversation, who, though they seem to reverence the holy Scriptures, are yet of reprehensible life, and who accordingly, in their own interest, attribute to God a still greater compassion towards men. For they acknowledge that it is truly predicted in the divine word that the wicked and unbelieving are worthy of punishment, but they assert that, when the judgment comes, mercy will prevail. For, say they, God, having compassion on them, will give them up to the prayers and intercessions of His saints. (XXI.18)
Alvin Kimel calls this view “intercessory universalism” because all will be saved in answer to the prayers of the saints.[viii]
Summary
These are only speculations on how Paul worked this out in his mind. Why didn’t he explain himself? He probably didn’t think this was a pressing issue for his churches. Or maybe the solution was something that he thought he was not permitted to tell (2 Cor 12:4). In either case, the limited data leaves us with a degree of mystery.
If any thinker holds the key to unlocking this mystery, it’s Paul. Here’s what he gives us: statements affirming a double outcome, warnings, deep sorrow over the fate of some, prayer for Israel and all to be saved, a conviction that “all Israel” would be saved, and a vision of universal unity with all praising Christ.
Finally, if Paul was a Christian universalist, he was no easygoing one. He didn’t think along these lines: Christ has done all the work and the end is guaranteed so I don’t have to do anything. He traveled, he preached, he prayed, he warned, he wrote, he shed tears, he was imprisoned, he was beaten, and he believed that in the end, God will be “all in all.”
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[i] Campbell, 436.
[ii] MacDonald, Kindle 2790.
[iii] Bell, 184.
[iv] MacDonald, Kindle, 2798.
[v] Bell, 255.
[vi] Ibid., 186.
[vii] Campbell, 435.
[viii] Kimel, 181.
After graduating from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, I served as a high school Bible teacher in Asia. I enjoy traveling, writing, and playing the drums. For a deep dive into church history and the character of God, see my book Surprised by Hell.
Defining “brother and sister” is very important as it is not as the world sees it